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A Comparative Study of the Formation of Contracts in Japanese, English, and German Law / B. Comparative Background
A Comparative Study of the Formation of Contracts in Japanese, English, and German Law / B. Comparative Background
Contents
Chapter
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Page
1–28
Titelei/Inhaltsverzeichnis
1–28
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29–31
A Note on Style, Transcriptions, and Translations
29–31
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Style
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Translations and Transcriptions of Foreign Language Terms
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32–41
A. Introduction
32–41
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I. Motivation, Subject, and Objectives of the Analysis
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II. Defining and Delimiting the Topic
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III. A Note on the Method
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42–309
B. Comparative Background
42–309
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I. Classification of the Legal Traditions of English and German Law and the Sources of their Contract Laws
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1. Classification of the Legal Traditions of English and German Law
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2. Sources of English and German (Contract) Law
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a. Sources of English (Contract) Law
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i. The Inter-relationship of the Sources in English (Contract) Law
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ii. English Legislation: Statutes and Statutory Instruments
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iii. English Case Law
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iv. EU Law: Legislation and Cases
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v. International Law
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b. Sources of German (Contract) Law
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i. The Inter-relationship of the Sources in German (Contract) Law
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ii. German Legislation: Gesetze and Verordnungen, German Statutes and Regulations
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iii. German Case Law: Rechtsprechung, German Court Decisions
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iv. EU Law: Legislation and Cases
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v. International Law: The CISG
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II. Contracts in English Law
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1. ‘Contract’ Defined
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2. The Historical Development of the English Law of Contract
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a. Contracts in the Kingdom of England in Tudor and Stuart Times: The Transition from Medieval to Modern Law Through the Action of Assumpsit and the Emergence of the Doctrine of Consideration (16th~17...
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i. Political and Social Background
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ii. The General Structure of Law
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iii. The Law of Contracts
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aa) Definition and Types of Contract
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bb) The Law of Contracts: Forms of Actions for Contractual Claims
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cc) The Formation of Contract and the Further Requirement of Giving Consideration
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dd) Contract Forms
Details
b. Contracts in the Kingdom of Great Britain and the United Kingdom in Hanoverian and Georgian Times: The Requirement of the Intention to Create Legal Relations and the Doctrine of Offer and Acceptanc...
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i. Political and Social Background
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ii. The General Structure of Law
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iii. The Law of Contracts
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aa) Definition of Contract
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bb) The Conclusion of Contracts: Emergence of the Doctrine of Offer and Acceptance and the Postal Rule
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cc) The Further Requirement of an Intention to Create Legal Relations
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c. The Subsequent Development of English Contract Law in Windsor Times (20th Century–)
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i. Overview of Political and Social Developments
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ii. Overview of (Contractual) Legal Developments
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3. Contracts in Current English Law and Legal Practice
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a. The Current Legal Background
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i. Basic Principles: Agreement Through Offer and Acceptance
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ii. Offer
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aa) ‘Offer’ Defined
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bb) Offers and Invitations to Treat
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cc) Certainty of Offer, Terms
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dd) Communication of Offers
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ee) Coming into Effect of Offers: The Mailbox Rule
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ff) Loss of Effect of Offers
Details
iii. Acceptance
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aa) ‘Acceptance’ Defined
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bb) Communication and Method of Acceptance
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cc) Coming into Effect of Acceptance: The Mailbox and Postal Rules
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dd) Loss of Effect of Acceptance
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iv. The Further Requirement of an Intention to Create a Binding Legal Relationship
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v. The Requirement of Consideration
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aa) ‘Consideration’ Defined
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bb) Rule 1: Sufficient Consideration, not Adequate
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cc) Nominal Consideration
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dd) Insufficient Consideration
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ee) Rule 2: No Past Consideration
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ff) Rule 3: Consideration of the Promisee
Details
b. Form Requirements in English Law
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i. Excursus: The Classification of Things in English Law
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ii. Written Forms: Standard Written Form and Evidence in Writing
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aa) The Requirements of Writing and of Evidence in Writing
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bb) Instances of the Written and the Written Evidence Forms
Details
iii. Special Instrument: Deed
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aa) Requirements of Deeds
Details
bb) Instances of Deeds
Details
iv. Signing and Sealing
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aa) ‘Signing’ and ‘Sealing’ Defined
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bb) Instances of Signing and Sealing
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v. Electronic Communication: Writing and Signatures
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aa) Electronic Documents: Writing
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bb) Electronic Signatures: English and EU Law
Details
c. Other Requirements under English Law
Details
i. Registration of Title to Land
Details
ii. Stamp Tax on Land Transactions
Details
d. Current Legal Practice in England
Details
4. Summary of Results
Details
III. Contracts in German Law
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1. ‘Vertrag’(Contract) Defined
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2. The Historical Development of the German Law of Contract
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a. Contracts in the Alte Reich (16th ~ 19th Century): Emergence of the First Great Private Law Codifications
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i. Political and Social Background
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ii. The General Structure of Law
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iii. The Law of Contracts: Gemeines Recht (Common Law) and the Allgemeines Landrecht für die Preußischen Staaten (General State Laws of the Prussian States)
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aa) Definition and Types of Contract
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bb) Contract Conclusion: Offer and Acceptance
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cc) The Coming into Effect of Declarations of Intentions
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dd) Contract Forms
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ee) The Further Requirement of Giving Arrha or Draufgabe (Earnest)
Details
b. Contracts in the Time from the Deutsche Bund to the Deutsche Reich: The Drafting of the BGB and of the HGB (19th Century)
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i. Political and Social Background
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ii. Structural Changes in the Law: Creation of an Imperial Supreme Court and the Codification of the BGB and the HGB
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iii. Contract Law in the Draft Legislation
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c. The Subsequent Development of German (Contract) Law (20th Century~)
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i. Overview of Political Developments
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ii. Overview of (Contractual) Legal Developments
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3. Contracts in Current German Law and Legal Practice
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a. The Current Legal Background
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i. Basic Principles: Contracts as Rechtsgeschäfte (Legal Transactions) and Willenserklärungen (Declarations of Intention)
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aa) ‘Willenserklärungen’ Defined
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bb) Types of Willenserklärungen and Methods of Declaration
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cc) Interpretation of Willenserklärungen
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dd) Rechtsgeschäfte (Legal Transactions)
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ii. Antrag or Angebot (Offer)
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aa) ‘Antrag’or ‘Angebot’ Defined
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bb) Angebot and Invitatio ad Offerendum (Invitation to Make an Offer)
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cc) Certainty of Angebote
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dd) Coming into Effect of Angebote: Empfangstheorie (Receipt Theory)
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ee) Bindingness and Loss of Effect of Angebote
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iii. Annahme (Acceptance)
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aa) ‘Annahme’ Defined
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bb) Method of Annahme
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cc) Certainty of Annahme
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dd) Coming Into Effect and Loss of Effect of Annahme
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iv. The Further Requirement of a Rechtsbindungswille (Intention of Legal Commitment)
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b. Form Requirements in German Law
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i. Excursus: The Classification of Things in German Law
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ii. Written Forms: Schriftform and Textform
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aa) The Requirements of the Urkunde
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bb) The Requirement of the lesbare Erklärung auf einem dauerhaften Datenträger
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cc) Instances of Written or Text Form
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iii. Special Forms Involving Public Authorities: Öffentliche Beglaubigung (Official Certification) and Notarielle Beurkundung (Notarial Authentication)
Details
aa) Excursus: Seals of Public Authorities
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bb) Unterschrifts- and Handzeichensbeglaubigung (Certification of Signatures and Marks)
Details
cc) Notarielle and Öffentliche Beurkundung (Notarial and Official Authentication)
Details
dd) Instances of Beglaubigungen and of Beurkundungen
Details
iv. Unterschreiben(Signing) and Siegeln (Sealing)
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aa) ‘Unterschrift’Defined
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bb) Characteristics of an Unterschrift
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cc) The Method of Unterschreiben
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v. Electronic Communication: Data, Documents and Signatures
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aa) ‘Electronic Contract’ and ‘Electronic Declarations of Intention’ Defined
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bb) Electronic Form and Electronic Signatures
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vi. Legal Consequences of Non-Fulfilment and Healing Methods
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aa) General Consequence of Non-Fulfilment: Voidness
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bb) Exceptional Instances of Other Consequences
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cc) Extent of Operation of Form Requirements and their Consequences
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dd) Healing and Other Ways of Avoiding the Consequences of Non-fulfilment
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c. Other Requirements under German Law
Details
i. Delivery and Registration of Property
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ii. Draufgabe(Earnest)
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d. Current Legal Practice in Germany
Details
4. Summary of Results
Details
310–435
C. Contracts in Japanese Law
310–435
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I. Classification of the Legal Tradition of Japanese Law and the Sources of its Contract Law
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1. Classification of the Legal Tradition of Japanese Law
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2. Sources of Japanese (Contract) Law
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a. The Inter-relationship of the Sources of Japanese (Contract) Law
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b. Japanese Legislation: Hōrei (法令), Japanese Laws and Regulations
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c. Japanese Case Law: Hanrei (判例), Japanese Court Decisions
Details
d. International Law: The CISG
Details
II. ‘Keiyaku’(契約, Contract) Defined
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III. The Historical Development of the Japanese Law of Contract
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1. Contracts in Japan’s Early Modern Period, the Tokugawa Era (17th ~ 19th Century): Legal Fragmentation in Peaceful Times of Growing Commerce, the Sowing Ground for Contract Law
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a. Political and Social Background
Details
b. The General Structure of Law
Details
c. The Law of Contracts
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i. Definition and Types of Contracts
Details
ii. Contract Law
Details
iii. Contract Forms
Details
iv. The Further Requirement of Giving Tetsuke (Earnest)
Details
2. Political and Legal Change during the Meiji Era: The Creation of the First Great Japanese Private Law Codifications (Turn of the 19th Century)
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a. Political and Social Background
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b. Initial Reform Projects in Japanese Private and Commercial Law
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c. First Codification Attempts and the Codification Dispute
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i. First Codification Attempt of a Civil Code
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ii. First Codification Attempt of a Commercial Code
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iii. The Codification Dispute
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d. The Creation of the Minpō (Civil Code) and of the Shōhō (Commercial Code)
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3. The Subsequent Development of Japanese Contract Law during the Taishō, Shōwa, and Heisei Eras (20th Century~)
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a. Overview of Political and Social Developments
Details
b. Overview of (Contractual) Legal Developments
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IV. Contracts in Current Japanese Law and Legal Practice
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1. The Current Legal Background
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a. Basic Principles: Contracts as Matching Ishi Hyōji (意思表示, Declarations of Intention)
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i. Contracts as Ishi Hyōji
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ii. Mōshikomi (申込み, Offer)
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aa) ‘Mōshikomi’Defined
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bb) Mōshikomi and Mōshikomi no Yūin(申込みの誘引, Invitation to Make an Offer)
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cc) Coming into Effect of Mōshikomi: Tōtatsu Shugi (到達主義, Arrival Rule)
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dd) Loss of Effect of Mōshikomi: The Distinction Between Taiwa-sha-kan (対話者間, Between Present Persons) and Kakuchi-sha-kan (隔地者間, Between Persons at Distance)
Details
iii. Shōdaku (承諾, Acceptance)
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aa) ‘Shōdaku’ Defined
Details
bb) Method of Shōdaku
Details
cc) Coming into Effect of Shōdaku: Hasshin Shugi (発信主義, Dispatch Rule) and Tōtatsu Shugi (到達主義, Arrival Rule)
Details
dd) Loss of Effect of Shōdaku
Details
b. Form Requirements in Japanese Law
Details
i. Excursus: The Classification of Mono (物, Things) in Japanese Law
Details
ii. Written Form: Writing and Shomen (書面, Document)
Details
aa) ‘Writing’ and ‘Document’ Defined
Details
bb) Instances of the Written Form
Details
iii. Shomei suru(署名する, Signing) and Ō’in suru (押印する, Sealing)
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aa) ‘Signing’ and ‘Sealing’ Defined
Details
bb) Instances of a Requirement to Sign and Seal
Details
cc) Excursus: The Different Types of Seals in Japan for Individuals
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iv. Contracts and Kōshō-nin (公証人, Japanese Notaries)
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aa) Drafting of Contract Documents by Japanese Notaries (Notarial Authentication)
Details
bb) Notarial Certification of Private Documents
Details
c. Other Requirements under Japanese law
Details
i. Registration of Property
Details
ii. Inshi-zei(印紙税, Stamp Tax)
Details
iii. Tetsuke(手付, Earnest Money)
Details
aa) ‘Tetsuke’Defined
Details
bb) Method of Effecting Tetsuke
Details
cc) Types and Functions of Tetsuke
Details
2. Legal Thinking and Current Legal Practice in Japan
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a. Japanese Legal Thinking Generally
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b. Contracts in Japanese Legal Thinking
Details
c. Contractual Formality in Japanese Legal Thinking
Details
d. Current Legal Practice in Japan
Details
V. The Modernisation of the Saiken-hō (債権法, Japanese Law of Obligations)
Details
1. Reasons Underlying the Reform Project of the Law of Obligations
Details
2. The Reform Process: Initiation, Intermediate Results, Coming into Effect of the Amendments
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3. Content of the Reform Project
Details
a. Concerning the Coming into Effect of Declarations of Intention
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i. Article 97 Minpō
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ii. Article 526 Minpō; Article 508 Shōhō
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iii. Article 4 Denshi keiyaku-hō
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b. Concerning the Time of the Formation of a Contract
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c. Concerning the Effectiveness of Declarations of Intention: Validity and Revocability
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i. Former Article 521, new Article 523 Minpō
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ii. Former Articles 522–523, new Article 524 Minpō; Article 508 Shōhō
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iii. Former Article 524, new Article 525 Minpō; Article 507 Shōhō
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d. Concerning Formalities of Contracts
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i. New Article 522 Minpō
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ii. New Article 587-2 Minpō
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iii. Article 557 Minpō; Article 39 Paragraph 2 Takuchi-gyō-hō
Details
VI. Summary of Results
Details
436–516
D. Comparative Analysis of the Rules on the Formation of Contracts in Japanese, English, and German Law
436–516
Details
I. The Concept and Types of Contract
Details
II. The Three Pillars of the Formation of Contracts and Indicia of Seriousness
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1. Offer
Details
a. Differentiation Between Offers and other Statements or Acts
Details
i. Statements and Acts Deemed as Offers
Details
ii. Statements and Acts Deemed as Invitations to Make an Offer
Details
b. Requirements for Offers: Certainty and Communication
Details
c. The Effectiveness of Offers
Details
2. Acceptance
Details
a. Acceptance and other Acts or Statements; Method of Acceptance
Details
b. Requirements for Acceptance: Unconditionality, Congruence, and Communication
Details
c. The Effectiveness of Acceptance
Details
i. Coming into Effect of Acceptance
Details
ii. Loss of Effect of Acceptance
Details
3. Intention to be Legally Bound
Details
4. Indiciaof Seriousness
Details
III. The Form Requirements
Details
1. Written Forms and (Notarial) Deeds
Details
a. Simple Written Forms: Evidence in Writing and the Textform
Details
b. The Standard Written Form
Details
c. Special Instruments: (Notarial) Deeds
Details
i. Requirements of (Notarial) Deeds
Details
ii. Instances of (Notarial) Deeds
Details
2. Seals, Signatures, and Other Forms of Signing
Details
a. Signatures
Details
b. Seals
Details
i. The Use of Seals in England, Germany, and Japan until Modern Times (19th Century)
Details
aa) Types and Functions of Seals
Details
bb) Sealing in Contracting
Details
cc) The Accessibility of Seals
Details
dd) The Development of the Sealing Practice
Details
ii. Today’s Use of Seals in England, Germany, and Japan
Details
aa) Seals in England and Germany
Details
bb) Seals in Japan
Details
c. Excursus: Other Forms of Authenticating Documents
Details
IV. Contracts in the Digital Economy: Online Transactions and Beyond
Details
1. Declarations of Intention and Formation of Contracts in Online Transactions
Details
a. The Classification of Statements made Electronically as Legally (Ir)relevant
Details
b. Coming into Effect of Electronic Declarations of Intention
Details
2. Contractual Form and Methods of Authentication in Online Transactions
Details
a. Electronic Contract Forms
Details
b. Electronic Forms of Authentication: Electronic Signatures and Seals
Details
3. Excursus: The Future of Contracting in Online Transactions through Legal Tech and Smart Contracts
Details
V. The Formation of a Sales Contract Concerning Real Estate
Details
1. The Classification of Real Estate in Terms of Property
Details
2. The Course of a Real Estate Transaction in Practice
Details
3. The Legal Requirements for a Contract Concerning Real Estate
Details
4. The Professional Parties Involved in a Real Estate Transaction
Details
a. The Role of Solicitors, Rechtsanwälte, and Bengo-shi (弁護士)
Details
b. The Role of Notaries Public, Notare, and Kōshō-nin (公証人)
Details
c. The Role of Real Estate Agents, Immobilienmakler, and Fudō-san-ya (不動産屋)
Details
d. The Role of Shihō shoshi (司法書士, Judicial Scriveners)
Details
517–574
E. Results of the Comparative Analysis Contrasted and Final Conclusions
517–574
Details
I. Results of the Comparative Analysis Juxtaposed with the International Perspective: The CISG
Details
1. The Sphere of Application of the CISG: International Sale of Goods
Details
2. The Formation of Contract under the CISG: Offer and Acceptance, no Form
Details
a. Offers
Details
i. ‘Offer’ Defined and Distinction from Invitations to Make an Offer
Details
ii. Requirements of Offers: Certainty of Terms and Intention
Details
b. Acceptance
Details
i. ‘Acceptance’ Defined; Distinction from Other Acts and Statements
Details
ii. Method of Acceptance
Details
iii. Congruence Between Offer and Acceptance
Details
c. The Effectiveness of Declarations of Intention
Details
i. Coming into Effect of Declarations of Intention
Details
aa) Coming into Effect of Offers to the Public
Details
bb) Coming into Effect of Acceptance: Must be Made Within a Set or Reasonable Period; Late Acceptance
Details
cc) ‘Reaching’ Defined
Details
ii. Loss of Effect of Declarations of Intention
Details
d. No Form Requirements
Details
3. Summary of Results
Details
II. Results of the Comparative Analysis Juxtaposed with the European Legal-political Perspective: The DCFR, the CESL, and the PECL
Details
1. The Sphere of Application of the CESL, the DCFR, and the PECL
Details
2. The Formation of Contracts under the CESL, the DCFR, and the PECL
Details
a. ‘Contract’ Defined
Details
b. Offers
Details
c. Acceptance
Details
d. Effectiveness of Declarations of Intention
Details
i. Coming into Effect of Declarations of Intention
Details
ii. Loss of Effect of Declarations of Intention
Details
e. The Sufficiency of the Agreement: Certainty or Determinability
Details
f. The Requirement of an Intention to be Legally Bound
Details
g. Form Requirements
Details
i. The Standard Written Form and the Textual Form
Details
ii. Instances of Form Requirements
Details
3. Summary of Results
Details
III. Synthesis of the Comparative Analysis and Final Conclusions
Details
575–611
Bibliography
575–611
Details
Literature in Print
Details
Online Resources: Blog Entries and Websites
Details
Personal Interviews, Lectures, and Seminars
Details
612–618
Table of Legislation
612–618
Details
International Conventions
Details
European Union
Details
England
Details
Germany
Details
Japan
Details
619–626
Table of Cases
619–626
Details
European Union (Court of Justice of the European Union; in chronological order)
Details
England (alphabetical order)
Details
Germany (by court in chronological order)
Details
Federal Consitutional Court (Bundesverfassungsgericht, 1951–)
Details
Federal Court of Justice (Bundesgerichtshof, 1950–)
Details
Federal Labour Court (Bundesarbeitsgericht, 1954–)
Details
Higher Regional Courts (Oberlandesgerichte)
Details
Regional Courts (Landgerichte)
Details
Local Courts (Amtsgerichte)
Details
Imperial Court (Reichsgericht, 1879–1945)
Details
Other German Courts
Details
Japan (by court in chronological order)
Details
Great Court of Judicature (Dai-shin'i, 大審院, 1875–1947)
Details
Japanese Supreme Court (Saikō Saiban-sho, 最高裁判所, 1947–)
Details
Japanese District Court (Chihō Saiban-sho, 地方裁判所)
Details
Other Courts
Details
627–632
Index
627–632
Details
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A Comparative Study of the Formation of Contracts in Japanese, English, and German Law , page 42 - 309
B. Comparative Background
Autoren
Anna Katharina Suzuki-Klasen
DOI
doi.org/10.5771/9783748911777-42
ISBN print: 978-3-8487-7128-8
ISBN online: 978-3-7489-1177-7
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