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Andrew Fiala - Tyranny from Plato to Trump

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Andrew Fiala

Tyranny from Plato to Trump

2022

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PartI. HISTORICAL, POLITICAL, AND THEOLOGICAL CONTEXTS S. 1-68

„… HISTORICAL, POLITICAL, AND THEOLOGICAL CONTEXTS131FROM TRUMP TO PLATO AND BACK AGAINLack of …” „… key points that we will return to throughout our discussion. First, political tyranny is exorbitant …” „… access to secret information. Sometimes sycophants provide a political theory that justifies the tyrant’s …”

Preface

„… (cloth) | ISBN 9781538160497 (epub) Subjects: LCSH: Despotism. | Trump, Donald, 1946– | Political …” „… 39.48-1992.Philosophy is the midwife of wisdom.—Plato, Theatetusv i iPreface xPART I HISTORICAL, POLITICAL …” „… Eyes 48 4 Political Tragedy and Historical Wisdom 51Philosophical History 51Aristotle, Trump, and …”

doi.org/10.5771/9781538160497

Marc Debus - Pre-Electoral Alliances, Coalition Rejections, and Multiparty Governments

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Marc Debus

Pre-Electoral Alliances, Coalition Rejections, and Multiparty Governments

2007

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Tactical programmatic behaviour of political parties S. 194-200

„… behaviour of political parties The fact that before an election parties name their preferred future …” „… towards the centre of the non-modified political heart, it is assumed that parties recognize their …” „… location of parties A, B and C on the two most important policy dimensions. The centre of the political …”

Bringing office-, policy- and (semi-)institutional perspectives together: an extended model of coalition politics S. 118-131

„… , if oversized coalitions are preferred in some countries, political parties should have this in mind …” „… (Budge, 1994: 459ff.; Budge and Klingemann, 2001: 24ff.), policy positions of political parties indeed …” „… political heart, whereas both remaining parties D and E have to be considered as peripheral parties. Parties …”

References S. 207-228

„… (eds.): Political Parties in Advanced Industrial Democracies. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 151-180 …” „… . Baden-Baden: Nomos, 151-159. Deschouwer, Kris (2004): Political Parties and their reaction to the Erosion of …” „… .): Political Parties and Electoral Change: Party Responses to Electoral Markets. London, Thousand Oaks, New …”

Multidimensional models of party competition and coalition formation S. 98-104

„… area-specific positions of political parties have a decisive influence. For this reason, one can say that the …” „… , this enables us to disassemble the common one-dimensional left-right ordering of political parties by …” „… - as well as the multi-dimensional case. The basic idea is that political parties are more likely to …”

Research questions, theoretical framework and results of the study S. 15-19

„… political parties from both a formal and behaviouralistic perspective. While studies on coalition politics …” „… particular. The political heart concept takes into account not only the seat strength of parties in …” „… positioning of Belgian parties after the 1978 election. Following the political heart approach, the Belgian …”

Theories of coalition formation and the pay-off structure in coalition governments S. 94-98

„… assumption of the first one is that actors, political parties in the context here, try to maximize their …” „… the assertion strength of political parties in coalitions and, further, the programmatic positioning …” „… (Laver and Schofield, 1998: 91; Strøm and Müller, 1999: 5). Policy positions of political parties for one …”

The behaviouralist perspective S. 112-118

„… numerical party fragmentation the ideological heterogeneity between the political parties as an indicator …” „… ”, anti-system parties play a major role. Such parties try to change the established structures of the political …” „… here. Even more importantly, the political parties before an election make it – more or less – clear …”

Summary of the findings S. 201-203

„… of the pivotal status of political parties. Therefore, a more detailed description of the development …” „… programmatic positioning of parties there is also some evidence for tactical ideological behaviour of …” „… peripheral parties or ones that participate in a pre-electoral alliance. In the following, I will first …”

Analysis of roll call voting S. 132-133

„… respective pivotal parties by presenting the solutions of the political heart model, both in its “original …” „… ” and in the modified version. Third, the assertion potential of political parties inside coalition …” „… programmatic moves of political parties are analysed. The final section provides a summary of the results and …”

Wordscore – combining expert judgements with computer-aided content analysis S. 141-147

„… required assumption by using wordscore is that political parties do not use words randomly. Moreover, when …” „… both the policy positions and issue saliencies of political parties. To be more precise, the wordscore …” „… allocation of policy positions of political parties to the selected reference documents. When assuming that …”

Coalition formation, assertiveness and tactical programmatic positioning as patterns of coalition politics S. 90-94

„… programmatic positioning of political parties? 3.1 Coalition formation, assertiveness and tactical programmatic …” „… there show that not only policy preferences and strength of political parties determine patterns of …” „… policy driven approaches. The basic assumption of the first one is that actors, political parties in the …”

Programmatic positions and issue saliency of coalition agreements S. 177-181

„… assertiveness of political parties in coalition governments. 5.2 Programmatic positions and issue saliency of …” „… government, then the coalition agreement negotiated by the involved political parties is used to estimate the …” „… coalition governments. This once more could be an indication of the limited capability of political parties …”

Analysis of policy documents S. 136-141

„… reasons, a number of studies tried to extract policy-area specific positions of political parties using …” „… smaller, but parliamentary represented political parties impossible.35 By referring to techniques of …” „… positions of political parties from the CMP data is the method developed by Pappi and Shikano (2004). In …”

Which parties are pivotal? S. 181-185

„… of the last mentioned document to measure the policy assertion strength of political parties. Before …” „… classification of pivotal and non-pivotal parties is based on the modification of the political heart model …” „… one side, the predictions of the unchanged political heart model include all those parties that …”

Historical development and cultural constraints on Belgian coalition politics S. 75-85

„… profound state crises that led towards changes of the constitution and thus also in the political and party …” „… cleavage resulted in competition between liberal, more secular parties on the one side and the …” „… Belgian political system today. Belgium is divided into a southern region, Wallonia, which is …”

Approaches in analysing payoffs in coalition governments S. 104-107

„… . Browne and Feste (1975) assumed that the preferences of political parties in terms of policy formulation …” „… parties inside coalition governments, which I will introduce below. The aim of Schofield when developing …” „… the political heart model was not to analyse the specific circumstances in coalition politics. He uses …”

Right-wing populist parties S. 158-161

„… evidence that parties belonging to specific political families adopt the same programmatic strategy …” „… left-wing positions. It also seems that party positions as well as the issue saliencies of political parties …” „… issue saliencies of political parties. …”

The institutional perspective S. 107-112

„… ; Müller, 2005: 83f.), some electoral systems constitute incentives for political parties both to take a …” „… is the “single transferable vote” system. Here, political parties are invited to form alliances …” „… of every potential coalition government – even if the respective parties share similar ideological …”

Coalition formation S. 162-177

„… 162 5 Analysis Having shown the descriptive results on programmatic positions of political parties …” „… programmatic positioning of political parties, I shall apply the data to analyse patterns of coalition …” „… and with regard to the fact that some policy areas for political parties are of more importance than …”

Case selection S. 19-21

„… programmatic movements of political parties are analysed for each election in the time period between 1979 and …” „… positions and issue saliencies of political parties and coalition governments as well as a list of analysed …” „… between at least two parties during the respective timeframe under consideration here. One could argue …”

Historical development and cultural constraints on Irish coalition politics S. 25-36

„… ? Second, which long- or short-term alliances between political parties are observable or, otherwise, which …” „… potential winning combinations between parties did one or more political actors before an election reject …” „… politics and the programmatic positioning of political parties? In a second stage and after the description …”

Position extraction from elite studies and regular surveys S. 133-134

„… possibility for extracting the programmatic positions of political parties is to use survey data. In this …” „… positions of parties or – more generally – political actors that are based on surveys that focus on special …” „… that political parties in some policy-areas of minor importance have programmatically different …”

Covered policy dimensions S. 21-23

„… economic issues reflect the 1 The policy positions and issue saliencies of political parties and …” „… , enforcement potential and programmatic behaviour of political parties. The goal of this chapter is to identify …” „… - and office assertion strength and (3) strategic programmatic behaviour of political parties. The …”

Historical development and cultural constraints on Austrian coalition politics S. 52-58

„… priori preferences and rejections by the political parties. 2.3 Austria: the dominance of the grand …” „… main parties after 1945 established a consociational structure in the political system of the “Second …” „… parties, i.e. the Socialists (SPÖ; since 1991: Social Democrats) and the catholic-conservative Austrian …”

Plan of the study S. 23-24

„… coalition formation, enforcement potential and programmatic behaviour of political parties. The goal of this …” „… behaviour of political parties. The hypotheses are based on a modification of the political heart model …” „… , Benoit and Garry, 2003) to estimate the programmatic positions of political parties and coalition …”

Historical development and cultural constraints on Dutch coalition politics S. 61-71

„… that include only religious political parties. To stabilise the segmented Dutch society, coalitions …” „… consociational type of the “Second Republic” resulted in coalition governments between both large parties. 2.4 …” „… modern parties were established, Dutch society was divided not only between a strong Roman-Catholic …”

Expert surveys S. 134-136

„… correct. However, the possibility also exists that political parties in some policy-areas of minor …” „… concerns the assumption that the respondents’ mean positions reflect the parties “true” ideological …” „… position. It could be the case that the respondents’ perception of the respective parties’ position is …”

Institutional constraints on Dutch party competition and coalition politics S. 71-75

„… becomes clear that not all parties have the same chance of becoming a member of a government coalition …” „… . The reasons are specific constraints in the national political cultures. In case of the Netherlands …” „… clear definition of system-immanent and anti-system parties. During the process of depillarisation since …”

Policy assertion potential S. 185-190

„… movements of political parties. 5.4 Policy- and office assertion potential After looking at the empirical …” „… potential of parties inside coalition governments. As already made clear, I differentiate between two types …” „… the programmatic positions of the respective parties, articulated in their election manifestos, and …”

Historical development and cultural constraints on German coalition politics S. 39-47

„… , Conservatives and moderate Nationalists could find a political home in the new parties CDU and CSU (Haungs, 1990 …” „… described in the next section, in Germany coalitions between both large parties CDU/CSU and SPD are the …” „… , one of the two major parties has been in opposition. From 1969 to 1982, a coalition between the SPD …”

Vorwort S. 5-10

„… positioning of political parties? 90 3.1 Coalition formation …” „… behaviour of political parties 194 6 Conclusion 201 6.1 Summary of the findings 201 5.2 Incentives for …” „… Methods for estimating programmatic positions of political actors 132 4.1.1 Analysis of roll call voting …”

Patterns of office allocation S. 190-194

„… for Belgian parties: see table 5.1. 5.5 Tactical programmatic behaviour of political parties The fact …” „… centre of the non-modified political heart, it is assumed that parties recognize their peripheral status …” „… the smaller parties FDP and D66 were able to assert their policy goals better than their larger …”

Institutional constraints on Belgian party competition and coalition politics S. 85-89

„… political parties on these dimensions seem to have an influence on the coalition formation process. However …” „… composition of Belgian governments. In particular the step-by-step change of the Belgian political system from …” „… coalition between only or predominantly francophone or Flemish parties has to be excluded from the set of …”

Incentives for future research S. 203-206

„… way is a valid comparison of the position of political parties and voters possible. An alternative to …” „… favour Not in favour H1 (coalition formation) ? H2a (policy assertion strength of pivotal parties …” „… ) ? H2b (small party bias) ? H2c (monitoring potential of pivotal parties) ? H3a (programmatic …”

Institutional constraints on party competition and coalition politics in Germany S. 47-52

„… the political parties. 2.3 Austria: the dominance of the grand coalition culture 2.3.1 Historical …” „… far, three points must be remembered. First, coalitions between both large parties are possible, but …” „… government together with SPD and Greens, only a coalition between the two large parties or a three party …”

Applied method S. 21

„… economic issues reflect the 1 The policy positions and issue saliencies of political parties and …” „… of election manifestos is already a major research field in political science (see Budge, Robertson …” „… programmatic positions and issue saliencies of all parliamentary parties on three policy dimensions, which …”

Comparative perspective and open questions S. 89

„… and Rokkan (1967) cleavage approach. Furthermore, the programmatic positions of the political parties …” „… parties’ programmatic positions another factor also seems to be important. This is the preference or …” „… rejection of potential alliances mentioned by the parties directly or indirectly. This issue clearly …”

Liberal parties S. 153-155

„… 153 4.2.3 Liberal parties The third main group of political parties in the countries under …” „… when looking at the programmatic positions of liberal parties in the country sample used here. As seen …” „… in figure 4.6, except for the Dutch D66 and the Austrian Liberal Forum all other liberal parties take …”

Christian democratic and Christian social parties S. 150-153

„… CDU/CSUFF FGCDA153 4.2.3 Liberal parties The third main group of political parties in the countries under …” „… of great importance for social democratic parties, but with a slightly decreasing tendency over time …” „… . In particular both Belgian socialist parties in the mid-1980s attached great significance to social …”

Social democratic and moderate socialist parties S. 147-150

„… , political groups from the “old” and “new left” as well as right-wing populist parties. To clarify that these …” „… possibility that the same parties are not always extreme in various policy areas. With regard to the time …” „… directions, which shape party competition in the five states included in this study. These are parties …”

Institutional constraints on Austrian party competition and coalition politics S. 58-61

„… , but those three parties never reached a majority in the parliament. 2.3.2 Institutional constraints on …” „… the political culture in Austria after 1945, constitutional factors also influence party competition …” „… situation in the parliament and the results from the negotiations between the parties, so that the …”

doi.org/10.5771/9783845203898

Sebastian Thomasius - Political decision makers and their relevance for public finances

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Sebastian Thomasius

Political decision makers and their relevance for public finances

Series: Neue Studien zur Politischen Ökonomie

Volume 13 2013

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Germany's federal design and political parties S. 73-74

„… policy suggestions.4.2 Institutional setting4.2.1 Germany’s federal design and political partiesThe …” „… parties. Modern Germany has five major political parties. TheChristian Democratic Union (CDU, i.e …” „… parties.Usually the CDU forms coalitions with the FDP or with the SPD, with the latter called‘grand coalitions …”

Fiscal federalism in Germany S. 74-76

„… other parties. Modern Germany has five major political parties. TheChristian Democratic Union (CDU, i.e …” „… parties.Usually the CDU forms coalitions with the FDP or with the SPD, with the latter called‘grand coalitions …” „… too shortto provide a sufficient variation in the (political) variables of interest for the five …”

A Appendix S. 130-136

„… affiliated with different parties(it takes the value 0 for single partygovernments and higher values indicate …” „… monthsDatabase on PoliticalInstitutions (Beck et al., 2001,version December 2010) foryears 1976–2009 …” „… of parliament seats held by parties thatsupport the government in percentDatabase on …”

Introduction S. 71-73

„… Institutional setting4.2.1 Germany’s federal design and political partiesThe ‘Federal Republic of Germany’ (FRG …” „… . Besides general economic circumstances, much ofthe discussion focuses on the institutional and political …” „… factors that cause poor fiscalperformance. Theories on political business cycles, partisan behavior, and …”

Description of our data set S. 37-40

„… leading candidates is held.One peculiarity of local elections in general is that political parties are …” „… independent candidates and political parties that are onlylocally active, it is the individual candidate’s …” „… at least two parties. However, theCSU clearly dominates the political arena in Bavaria and is the …”

Politics and public finances at the local level in Germany S. 36-37

„… elections.Given the large number of independent candidates and political parties that are onlylocally active, it …” „… among the two leading candidates is held.One peculiarity of local elections in general is that political …” „… parties are less importantthan for elections to state or federal parliament. This is reflected in the fact …”

References S. 149-158

„… .Hibbs, Douglas A. Jr. 1977. ‘Political parties and macroeconomic policy.’ The American Political Science …” „… . Cambridge MA: MIT Press, 13–62.Alesina, Alberto and Roberto Perotti. 1995. ‘The political economy of budget …” „… deficits.’IMF Staff Papers 42 (1):1–31.Alesina, Alberto, Roberto Perotti, and José Tavares. 1998. ‘The political …”

Ability of the finance minister S. 78-80

„… finance minister have the same party affiliation because then they willprobably have more political views …” „… , namely the spending ministers. AlsoLott and Reed (1989) say that political markets sort out poorly …” „… as an instrument toensure the adoption of a specific policy and in the sameway parties might use …”

Description of the data set S. 82-86

„… Description of the data setWe compiled a unique data set comprising yearly data on political decision …” „… relevant for later performance.Data description: Economic and political control variablesWe control for the …” „… described in the traditional political economyliterature. First of all, we control for years with elections …”

Description of the data set S. 111-116

„… 0.828Ability: Political experience and standingtenure 480 2.502 2.233 0.031 11.515tenure_spending 480 …” „… political economy aspects. Theyare taken from theWorld Bank Database of Political Institutions (DPI) that is …” „… controls for political business cycles. It is a DV for upcoming elections at the national level within the …”

Traditional theories on budget deficits as control variables S. 80-81

„… increases with political competition. Galasso and Nannicini (2011) find a similareffect for the Italian …” „… resulting opportunistic behavior might cause political businesscycles. Alesina, Perotti, and Tavares (1998 …” „… ), Persson and Tabellini (1999), Rogoffand Sibert (1988) and Rogoff (1990) discuss such political business …”

Public finances and the finance minister's preferences S. 107-109

„… political peak (Barro, 1973) and may have nofurther political (career) ambitions. When Besley and Case (1995 …” „… response tothe economic or political circumstances. And indeed, a main result of the analysis ofthe …” „… education and professional experience, of candidates who runfor a political office. Higher educated …”

Conclusion S. 97-98

„… increasing empirical literature on the political economy of public deficits, the role and responsibility of …” „… strength within thecabinet increases both with her previous political experience as a member of parliament …” „… stays in office for a long time, and if she has political experience as aformer member of parliament …”

Specification of the econometric model S. 109-111

„… political circumstances. And indeed, a main result of the analysis ofthe determinants of electoral success …” „… experience, of candidates who runfor a political office. Higher educated candidates received significantly …” „… politicians for more competitive political environments (Paola and Scoppa, 2011; Galasso and Nannicini, 2011 …”

A Appendix S. 98-100

„… , and if she has political experience as aformer member of parliament. Moreover, in a coalition …” „… in the World BankDatabase on Political Institutions (Beck et al., 2001). Itgives the probability that …” „… two randomly drawn ministersare affiliated with different parties (independent ministersare counted …”

Titelei/Inhaltsverzeichnis S. 2-9

„… Institutional setting 734.2.1 Germany’s federal design and political parties 734.2.2 Fiscal federalism in …” „… Thomasius2.AuflagePolitical decision makers and their relevance for public financesNomosBUT_Thomasius …”

Candidate characteristics and election outcomes S. 21-24

„… results of both studies suggest that political partiesadjust candidate selection to match those of voters …” „… political economy frequently build on two types of politiciansthat have either a high or a low level of …” „… theyface. Such models are used, for example, to explain political business cycles or otherstrategies …”

doi.org/10.5771/9783845250052

Olaf Wientzek - The European People's Party and the East

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Olaf Wientzek

The European People's Party and the East

Series: Demokratiestudien. Demokratie und Demokratisierung in Theorie und Empirie

Volume 9 2019

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3. The domestic political environment and political parties in Ukraine, Moldova and Georgia S. 33-82

„… 33 3. The domestic political environment and political parties in Ukraine, Moldova and Georgia …” „… institutional and political environment of political parties in Ukraine, Georgia and Moldova and highlight …” „… the first ten years after independence, political parties played only a minor role in the political …”

6. The EPP as a norm promoter S. 149-200

„… of the Maastricht Treaty: “Political parties at European level are important as a factor for …” „… between national parties in the light of a common political orientation. Europarties therefore function …” „… national MPs of its member parties.”518 The Political Assembly is the key instrument for coordination and …”

5. Operationalisation S. 113-148

„… the case the party leadership had already acquired experiences in political parties and/or the …” „… as a relevant explanatory variable if this analysis examined the EPP’s influence on political parties …” „… : Hypothesis 2.1.: The EPP influenced the transformation of political parties if the norm promoter had a high …”

2. Literature Review S. 25-32

„… of its member parties’ political foundations23: Dakowska concludes that in Central and Eastern …” „… Europe and the EU issue in party programmes and the political discourse of parties in the Eastern …” „… focused on the influence of the EPP’s discourse on Ukrainian political parties. Shagina has made a more …”

8. Conclusion S. 347-366

„… transformation processes of political parties under certain conditions. The obstacles for successful and …” „… young or small political parties in their formative years and was rarely sustained over a long period …” „… strongest occurred mostly in parties which eventually had no or a very limited weight in the political …”

7. Influence of the EPP on party transformation in Ukraine, Moldova and Georgia S. 201-346

„… . The same scenario is found on the case of social learning mechanisms: not all political parties in the …” „… clear in practice and clarity was higher for political parties which joined or attempted to join after …” „… accession processes with Ukrainian parties, the waiting periods of political parties and the procedures …”

1. Introduction S. 19-24

„… 19 1. Introduction “(...) political parties created democracy and (...) modern democracy is …” „… institutions can only to a very limited extent focus their support on political parties or party systems.6 …” „… particularly partisan organizations such as political foundations10 or European transnational parties …”

Titelei/Inhaltsverzeichnis S. 1-18

„… Influence of the European People’s Party on the Transformation of Political Parties in Ukraine, Moldova …” „… 25 3. The domestic political environment and political parties in Ukraine, Moldova and Georgia 33 …” „… 3.1 Ukraine 33 3.1.1 Context of party political landscape 33 3.1.2 Political parties 39 …”

9. Bibliography S. 367-398

„… Council of 4 November 2003 on the regulations governing political parties at European level and the rules …” „… ): Against all odds – Aiding political parties in Georgia and Ukraine, Amsterdam University Press. Bader …” „… September 2016) Carothers, Thomas (2006): Confronting the weakest link: Aiding political parties in new …”

4. Theoretical framework - Models of international norm promotion S. 83-112

„… ’ applies a broader definition: Based on rationalist bargaining, the norm provider relies on political …” „… political change (...)”.318 The behavior of targeted actors is driven by the objective to maximize power …” „… meritbased application of conditionality, which is not blurred by political criteria. 338. In order to …”

doi.org/10.5771/9783748904014

Karl-Heinz Nassmacher - The Funding of Party Competition

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Karl-Heinz Nassmacher

The Funding of Party Competition

2009

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Changing roles of political parties: Arrested distribution of power? S. 356-360

„… . Changing roles of political parties: Arrested distribution of power?Changes in the format and …” „… funding of political parties. Although between 1966 and 1983 just one of the two major parties (ÖVP, SPÖ …” „… competitive potential of political parties as there are countries with and without such subsidies in our …”

Bibliography S. 407-450

„… Funding of Political Parties and Candidates in Twenty-Five States. Los Angeles CA: Citizens’ Research …” „… Elections. A Data Book and Election Guide to Public Funding of Political Parties and Candidates in Seventeen …” „… , Maja (eds.) (2003): Funding of Political Parties and Election Cam paigns. Stockholm: International IDEA …”

Index S. 451-467

„… , 394governing parties 196, 198, 242, 257, 260, 277, 280-3, 284-5 see also fairness (of political …” „… funding 317-24– trade unions 246-9income of political parties see party revenueincome pull 145 …” „… kickbacks 279, 280, 281, 282, 283, 288 see also graft (political) Korea 33labour parties 211, 246-9 …”

Access for new parties: Openness of the party system? S. 346-352

„… legal funds may contribute to de-legitimise parties in particular and the democratic political system in …” „… funding on the rise of political parties. Parties in parliament may try to raise the threshold of access …” „… doubtful.Most right wing populist parties, a few of them calling themselves “progressive”, entered the political …”

National, regional and local tiers (levels of party organisation) S. 47-54

„… 47CHAPTER TWOFactual Pattern of (Party) ExpenditureSince the 1970s political parties have published …” „… attempts to establish the factual pattern of spending by political parties by answering two questions …” „… have to be aware that the purpose of political parties is not to operate a business. Thus unfortunately …”

Revenue/ income S. 393-397

„… complexity by describing types. Four types represent the universe of political parties operating in …” „… and parties is an expression of economic and political freedom, not necessarily the consequence of in …” „… , mostly according to party size; preferably with a certain base amount given to all recipient parties.The …”

Different levels of the party organisation (headquarters, branches and chapters) S. 378-387

„… sub-structures within political parties, especially party headquarters and the sub-national levels, measured in …” „… grass-roots seems to be a problem for both major parties in Britain. While “political party headquarters …” „… of ‘permanent campaigns’ grows, … All political parties (from sub-national to national level) set …”

Catch-all parties S. 398-402

„… and mass parties.6 This typology was rooted in a century of political development. Both types of party …” „… parties have sprung up throughout the political science literature. For many years after Kirchheimer’s …” „… other scholars have advanced a uni? ed view regarding the future of political parties: a convergence of …”

(Campaign) Spending by individual candidates S. 335-341

„… grass-roots democracy is a litmus test for good party government. Among other challenges political parties …” „… supported by party funding? Are there any indicators that an exclusion of parties from political competition …” „… competition between individual partiesIn most democracies one of the major parties will be better off …”

Costs of medium sized democracies: Canada, Australia, the Netherlands, Sweden S. 101-105

„… Political Parties (DNPP) of the University of Groningen a wealth of information is available for Dutch …” „… cash economy for the competing parties.An estimate of campaign expenses in 1988 indicated that the …” „… may just suf? ce to cover a major part of the non-accounted political spending by “trade unions …”

Parties and their candidates S. 374-378

„… main German political parties may be seen as consisting of several baronies, …” The sa me applies to …” „… ”, may be their power base.According to a variety of observations, the power within political parties has …” „… parties.A widely accepted hypothesis stipulates that in P.R. systems voters choose parties rather than …”

Institutional fundraising S. 244-254

„… . 7, 42; Sturm 2003, p. 246.55 „Treasury could match gifts to political parties”, in: The Times, 9 …” „… contributions to parties, politicians and factions. Whereas political revenue from in stitutional funding is …” „… campaign chests is overemphasised. Whereas PACs disproportionately support safe winners, political parties …”

Skewed competition between individual parties S. 341-346

„… political parties.”47 However, in 2000 this only applied to 14 of the 50 states. Matching funds for U.S …” „… de-legitimise parties in particular and the democratic political system in general. Such hazards are frequently …” „… between individual partiesIn most democracies one of the major parties will be better off ? nancially than …”

Intensified competition S. 164-167

„… importance of televised political advertising easily lends itself to overstatement.”51 In general parties …” „… will be limited to these parties.Since 1984 German parties are obligated by law to publicly report …” „… 164total spending by all German parties. The data processed in detail for the period 1968 to 2002 …”

Impacts of political funding S. 397-398

„… with a certain base amount given to all recipient parties.The signi? cance of public subsidies can be …” „… tended to become catch-all parties.71. Catch-all partiesFollowing an even more traditional line of …” „… , Japan and the Netherlands it is considerably lower.3. Impacts of political funding 5Following a …”

Professional politics S. 177-183

„… ? ces and staffs of political parties.”104 We have already presented the major types of cost necessary …” „… a political ? eld organisation based on paid labour is a long-time practice of parties in …” „… sub-national headquarters of the major parties.Nevertheless, during the 1970s and 1980s developments in …”

Paid labour S. 60-64

„… types of cost incurred by political parties.B) Types of cost (elements of expenditure)According to books …” „… rare.Ever since political parties began to compete for a mass electorate, they have relied on goods and …” „… services that political parties buy, i.e. acquire in exchange for cash.Ignoring national peculiarities …”

Cartel parties S. 402-406

„… by two novelty seeking scholars.What Katz and Mair discovered is not a new type of political parties …” „… cartel-like manner.2. Cartel partiesIn the 1990s Katz und Mair identi? ed a new type of party and named it the …” „… traditional means of fund-raising.29 Observing this process scholars have concluded that parties operate in a …”

Parliamentary party groups (caucuses) S. 58-60

„… more details on salaries and other types of cost incurred by political parties.B) Types of cost …” „… categories, and even such distinction is rare.Ever since political parties began to compete for a mass …” „… blems of the Third World.”54 Parties have, on occasion, used their foundations as a “dumping ground” for …”

More comprehensive data S. 162-164

„… 1968 to 2002 will be limited to these parties.Since 1984 German parties are obligated by law to …” „… public disclosure, more and more data concerning the costs of political competition is available. Whereas …” „… estimate of total political spending has become more accurate. In sum, 60% of the 1984-88 increase is …”

Contribution to party revenue (Income situation of parties) S. 317-322

„… raise enough funds as the amounts provided by voluntary giving to political parties and candidates do …” „… political parties at the national 146 Pierre/ Svasand/ Widfeldt 2000, p. 15.147 Nassmacher 1992b, p. 475.320 …” „… to political parties in France accounted for half of the national parties’ revenue in the late 1990s …”

Distribution of subsidies S. 314-317

„… contributions) is used for campaign reimbursements to parties in Canada.125 New political groups in France …” „… bution of public funds to political parties is partly based on successful fundraising. About half of the …” „… enough funds as the amounts provided by voluntary giving to political parties and candidates do not suf …”

Areas of interest: issues in political finance S. 19-26

„… politics and argued that the “real market for political parties is de? ned by major investors, who …” „… the political system.13 Until now research including the funding of political parties at the …” „… the funding of parties, campaigns and candidates are of major interest. Such rules, the political …”

Cornerstone of democracy or demand from never-land? S. 193-199

„… . Political parties, like the working class parties of the late 19th century in Europe, are expected to …” „… the funds, which are necessary to operate political competition in a democracy. Whereas parties can be …” „… than those offered by large organisations. Compared to political parties with goals and values, which …”

Problems of public funding S. 292-294

„… well as locally) and its own dayto-day operations.Because political parties perform functions crucial …” „… bet ween the expenses of political parties and the amounts provided by voluntary giving.For all …” „… parties is needed for democracy to en dure. However, quite like all other sources of political funding …”

Subsidies-in-kind S. 296-300

„… parties to co-operate voluntarily with political ? nance regulation. Mixed funding of politics and …” „… repealed it. Nowa days the most important campaign support given to political parties and their candidates …” „… political ad vertising by parties is allowed on local television and radio only.43In most European countries …”

Definition of the subject: political finance S. 30-34

„… democracy needs rules for political parties, which organise the management of con? icts between freedom and …” „… election times. Political differences between parties include their unequal appeal to voters and donors …” „… . The major actors in this ? eld are the political parties. Thus Alexander Heard was perfectly right in …”

Impacts of funding S. 43-46

„… on political parties,”123 an effort has to be made to evaluate the level of subsidisation. The tax …” „… rules enshrined in any political ? nance regime has to be open and fair. Parties in power may frame …” „… competition among parties. The impact of such great potential of political funds in the real world of party …”

Changes of grass-roots linkage via membership dues and small donations S. 363-370

„… ; Smith 2005.365regimes stand out because they de ? ne the rules of the game. Political parties are …” „… parties to follow a similar path of reform. Political ? nance laws may constrain or empower actors of the …” „… party members in particular, and between parties and voters in general. On the other hand, political …”

Sources of revenue S. 40-43

„… approach towards monetary resources for political parties (which is more appropriate in the 1950s than in …” „… unease among the voting public” about the fund ing of political parties from interested money. This …” „… . Public support for parties and candidates is the most important innovation in political ? nance during …”

Membership dues S. 199-215

„… in the funding of political parties and where, furthermore, this source is in decline.33Party members …” „… some parties report consider able ? gures. As one observer has stated, “French political parties are …” „… Netherlands women’s organisations and political parties were the only organisations that declined. Bet ween …”

Assessment of party/ political officeholders (graft from public office) S. 284-288

„… citizenry behind a leader (caudillo), has not only left its mark on the operation of political parties, but …” „… . This creates serious obstacles to exercising any adequate control over the funding of political parties …” „… parliamentarian has no other income.259 On aver age communist parties collected 70 percent of each political …”

Stimulating contributors (tax add-on, tax deduction, and tax credit) S. 225-230

„… generate suf? cient income for modern political parties.” The major reason for this is that “parties cannot …” „… , Pinto-Duschinsky 2001a, p. 10.226any tax bene? t for private donations to political parties.198 Such instruments …” „… registered political parties, including membership fees, up to AUD100 (€65) 207 per ? scal year may be …”

Costs of the biggest democracies: USA, Japan, Germany, Mexico S. 87-96

„… in politics.3 Many approaches seem to be driven by the assumption that political parties spend too …” „… routine and campaign purposes by parties and candi dates at all tiers of various political systems. In …” „… systematically underestimate the actual amount of political spending. This is due to the fact that parties are …”

Summary of findings for party organisation S. 389-392

„… the ? eld of political fund-raising.In the U.S. the patchwork structure of both major parties has led …” „… . Parties must select candidates for all levels of the political sys tem. This means that enough suitable …” „… 389while offering opportunities to their party activists. Parties in government (mostly in …”

Moral hazard of democracy? S. 239-244

„… monetary sources of political parties would look at mem bership dues, assessments of of? ce-holders, and …” „… of political funds, or to preserve the independence of politicians and parties, equal opportunities …” „… ambiva lent nature of political donations. Whereas democracy is a political system based on equal …”

Access to public funding S. 310-314

„… party subsidiesPublic subsidies to political parties are granted and distributed according to statute …” „… registered political parties repre sented by a minimum of two MPs. Since 2002 this includes eight parties …” „… for political parties. One part is distributed among parties, which have polled at least 1 percent of …”

Influence of party competition on funding rules S. 324-326

„… , directly or indirectly, old parties (which set the rules) hinder new parties’ access political competition …” „… . The governing parties are especially seen as gatekeepers. Because the political ? nance laws are often …” „… Rica (see Table 8-3).If public subsidies are more important for small parties than they are for major …”

Public funding as a result of government structure S. 326-332

„… legislature introduced public subsidies to political parties and to the press (including the party press …” „… political parties, the Japa nese government sets aside a fund of JPY 250 (€2.00) per citizen from tax …” „… amount, four other parties had to divide among them about one ? fth of the total. The political ? nance …”

Corporate contributions (money from the business community) S. 260-269

„… order to strengthen the role of the political parties, MPs are allowed only one support group (koenkai …” „… created the need for ? nancial support of political parties, which was matched by the need of bureau crats …” „… from the corporate world have been the most important source of political money. Right-of-centre …”

Party organisation and party penumbra S. 387-389

„… easily be linked to political parties, whereas some PACs form close alliances with parties.119 In 1976 …” „… de facto similarity in the internal distribution of power within the major parties.”114 Power resided …” „… funded and thus gain an advantage in political power. In Germany the parlia mentary complex becomes a …”

Summary of findings for party competition S. 360-362

„… funding of political parties. Although between 1966 and 1983 just one of the two major parties (ÖVP, SPÖ …” „… competitive potential of political parties as there are countries with and without such subsidies in our …” „… chapter has substantiated that state aid for political parties and their candidates has not prevented …”

Developing a case for public funding S. 289-292

„… and Portugal, state aid to political parties has been available from the very beginning (1977), as no …” „… operations.Because political parties perform functions crucial for the political system the question arises, whether …” „… there seems to be no other way to bridge the gap bet ween the expenses of political parties and the …”

Costs of major democracies: Italy, Britain, France, Spain, Poland S. 96-101

„… political outlay. Thus the consolidated spending by Mexico’s local, state and national parties during the …” „… comprehensive ? gure for) all other campaign expenses and local routine spending by political parties is not …” „… Yves-Marie Doublet reports the annual total of public subsidies to political parties (and the party press) as …”

Costs of small democracies: Austria, Switzerland, Israel, Denmark, Ireland S. 105-109

„… information. First, in 1998 the annual public grant to political parties totalled ILS 114 million. Second, on …” „… frequently, because the parties run everyday politics as well as election campaigns. The annual reports ? led …” „… by the Austrian parties include income and expenditure for the federal level only and completely …”

Modes of party competition S. 135-141

„… the major parties will necessarily cause a high level of political spending. A number of separate …” „… dominant party was the only road of access to real political power. For both parties, organisation in the …” „… political leaders of the major parties (federally as well as provincially) is achieved after expensive …”

Desiderata of political finance research S. 26-30

„… changes within political parties. Frequently results were reached by chance; some-44 An early attempt to …” „… 1998.63General research on political parties has widely ignored the provision of ? nancial resources as a …” „… analysis of political parties in the 1950s, he dealt with party funding mostly in passing except for some …”

Organisations of the party penumbra S. 308-310

„… 19th century on news papers owned and operated by political parties were a powerful means to convey …” „… publishing houses directly not channelled via political parties. Italian le gislation provides public …” „… councillors. Besides that they provide political (although not necessarily policy) research for the parties …”

Cost push or demand pull? S. 183-192

„… amounts of money spent for political purposes (parties, candidates or issues) have gone up considerably …” „… studies of political parties, their activities and their use of political resources. New ways of appealing …” „… increase of public subsidies in 1979) the 1977-80 election cycle provided more money for political parties …”

Abuse of public resources S. 276-279

„… groups. In the past, political parties in Western democracies successfully tapped various clienteles for …” „… is hard to observe where close (? nan cial and personal) links between political parties and the …” „… to political parties. In a sense, managers simply “bought” their re-appointment with corporate funds …”

Capital-intensive campaigning vs. labour-intensive party apparatus S. 132-135

„… of? ces of the major parties will necessarily cause a high level of political spending. A number of …” „… , voting system, effective number of parties, one-party cabinets and interest group pluralism are …” „… difference in political tradition is among the potential causes for different levels of political spending …”

Earmarked funds S. 300-302

„… ? nancially. In Canada registered political parties and constituency candidates are entitled to be reimburs ed …” „… support to direct funding of political parties has been dif? cult to travel for modern democracies. In …” „… political parties (or groups) is quite different. See below in this chapter, section D (allocation of …”

Graft from business sources S. 279-284

„… subsidies paid to political parties. In 1988 an esti mate of 12 trillion lire (about €6.2 billion) given as …” „… leader (caudillo), has not only left its mark on the operation of political parties, but also on the way …” „… obstacles to exercising any adequate control over the funding of political parties, be it devoted to …”

Demarcation of the subject of this study: party funding S. 34-37

„… democracy. However, they cannot substitute political parties, which present candidates and mobilise voters …” „… parties and candidates. As a conse quence, numerous political committees have sprung up to collect …” „… political process that in? uence party com petition. Many scholars of democratic politics focus on civil …”

Measurement of and incentives for grass-roots linkage S. 372-374

„… general problem of ? nding an adequate measure of linkage remains unsolved.For political parties, funding …” „… France are examples of the type. Not only “the main German political parties may be seen as consisting of …” „… 372On the contrary, the Central Of? ces of both major parties have turned to a loophole in the new …”

Small donations S. 215-222

„… may be due to the impact of social change and political ? nance regimes.117 Some parties have tried …” „… afford to contribute.”118 However, like membership dues, extramoney for political parties does not spring …” „… entertainment, are not equally prepared to donate to support their democracy including political parties.119 …”

Other goods and services S. 71-73

„… covered for political parties. Political spending is rather incompletely organised by type of cost. Just …” „… service rendered. When applied to political parties, the traditional Anglo-Saxon approach contrasts …” „… the routine operation of political parties, and/ or to provide services for the party leadership …”

Election campaigns (campaign spending) S. 73-79

„… 73that an important area of cost analysis has rarely been covered for political parties. Political …” „… object can be a product, a group of products or a service rendered. When applied to political parties …” „… elections by effective campaigning, to support the routine operation of political parties, and/ or to …”

Returns on investment: dividends and interest (parties as entrepreneurs) S. 274-276

„… frequently.C) Returns on investment: dividends and interest (parties as entrepreneurs)For the average political …” „… . 147/148; Sickinger 1997, pp. 75/76.275Many political parties, mostly in continental Europe, actively run …” „… . In the past, political parties in Western democracies successfully tapped various clienteles for …”

Paid TV advertising S. 167-172

„… as the largest single cost in political campaigns.” The major parties’ nominees spent 44% (Nixon …” „… although paid TV advertising is not available. Canadian parties have framed political ? nance regulation to …” „… speci? c challenge by a signi? cant independent candidate)47 on total political spending is much lower …”

Routines of conflict resolution S. 128-132

„… measurement.28The number of competing parties can in? uence the intensity of political con? ict. Contrasting a …” „… 1283. Routines of con? ict resolutionThe basis of political con? ict and the instruments of …” „… coalition politics is expensive for the taxpayer because small parties demand high prizes at the expense of …”

Public disincentives to discourage interested contributions S. 269-272

„… donations would have forced political parties to reject 3,002 donations, which represented 88 percent of the …” „… other new democracies political parties obtained money from abroad during the transition period. In …” „… East Central Euro pean political ? nance, which often overrides direct public funding.172 Thus Poland …”

Approaching members and supporters by direct mailings S. 370-372

„… political parties but also intensi? ed communication between various levels of the party organisation and …” „… for media performance, spin doctors and the like. However, this is not suf? cient. Parties have to be …” „… vital in order to recruit candidates at all levels of the political system (national/ federal, re gional …”

Unlimited sources of funding S. 141-146

„… subsidies provide additional revenue for political competitors. Parties are unlikely to save such funds in a …” „… , parties could use a vast supply of funds to start or to continue an arms race of political competition …” „… will decrease the outlay of parties for political competition. Another factor that has been mentioned …”

Titelei/Inhaltsverzeichnis S. 2-14

„… (parties as entrepreneurs) 274D) Party income from political graft 2761. Abuse of public resources 2772 …” „… changing weight of individual parties: Freezing of the party system? 3523. Changing roles of political …” „… of Party CompetitionPolitical Finance in 25 DemocraciesNomosBUT_Nassmacher_4271-7.indd 3 …”

Donations by wealthy individuals (contributions from personal wealth) S. 254-260

„… ) funds have not been “an important source of revenue for Canada’s three largest political parties” during …” „… political parties to raise cash. Certainly, handing out medals and ex tra letters [i.e. titles] is …” „… the corporate world have been the most important source of political money. Right-of-centre parties …”

Party spending S. 37-40

„… Pinto-Duschinsky 2002, p. 81.381. Party spendingAlthough modern democracies are run by political parties, the funds …” „… spends: political parties. Yet, what is a party? Parties are multi-facetted types of organisation. The …” „… approaches to spending totals seem to be driven by the assumption that political parties spend too much money …”

Offices (rent of premises etc.) S. 64-66

„… unknown to parties.80 The most advanced political ? nance regimes stipulate that certi? ed accountants …” „… some democracies local of? ces for political parties are rare (e.g. Netherlands, Switzerland), and in …” „… 64averages for individual parties are presented by party families. In general the data ? ts in with …”

Revenue sharing S. 234-238

„… 23431 percent of its non-federal funds in 1992 in direct support of state parties, the …” „… national headquarters have triggered off similar activities in European parties, including equalisation …” „… supporters. Different parties have their own statutes regarding transfer funds to lower levels. In Finland …”

Level of the taxpayers’ contribution S. 322-324

„… 322State aid seems to be a necessity for political parties in new democracies. Public ? nancing of …” „… is almost impossible to calculate how much money the state … spends on political parties”169 we …” „… 1992 the major parties in Spain reported that 74 to 96 percent of their headquarters’ income (excluding …”

Organisation maintenance S. 79-84

„… Political Parties and Candidates (Elections Canada) 1993, pp. 16-18; www.elections.ca (Registered Parties …” „… systems for the parties represented in the national parliament.161 Over decades the “political foundations …” „… maintenanceAll parties fund routine activities, which involve the maintenance of permanent organisations at the …”

Communication S. 66-68

„… (Registered Political Parties Fiscal Period Returns, Table 5)Comment: Since 2001 the data is no longer …” „… “rent and maintenance” for individual parties are available. Compared to staff expenses the cost of …” „… , the information is rather divers. French parties spend less than their British counterparts, major …”

Income from foreign funds S. 272-274

„… individual supporters in the Jewish diaspora, …”190In other new democracies political parties obtained money …” „… (parties as entrepreneurs)For the average political party, the accumulation of pro? t-yielding assets is …” „… companies.203In some cases parties have set up commercial enterprises to serve as a conduit for political …”

Party organisations S. 304-306

„… subsidies to political parties as well. Although each state has its own regulation, in general they are …” „… , Finland and Ireland.In parliamentary political systems with plurality or majority voting, constituency …” „… of 1,672). …. Among candidates of the major parties (3 in 1988, 5 from 1993 to 2000 and 4 since 2004 …”

Fundraising events (social activities) S. 222-224

„… people get together. Political parties organise social events in order to solicit contributions. “While a …” „… 222Parties raise a speci? c form of very stable, most reliable grass-roots ? nancing in Scandinavia …” „… In many countries parties obtain additional funds from various social activities such as events and …”

Means to increase the legitimacy of public subsidies S. 294-296

„… subsidies, political parties and eventually the democratic process. By careless handling of public funds …” „… ? cation of political funding and entices parties to co-operate voluntarily with political ? nance …” „… than their phrasing suggests) that parties can become dependent on the state budget?25 This certainly …”

Room for changing weight of individual parties: Freezing of the party system? S. 352-356

„… aid to political parties all have undergone massive changes in the fragmentation of their party …” „… parties has gone up to 7.9. Political and social cleavages over peace with the Palestinians, immigration …” „… . Changing roles of political parties: Arrested distribution of power?Changes in the format and …”

Reimbursement of costs incurred S. 300

„… ? nancially. In Canada registered political parties and constituency candidates are entitled to be reimburs ed …” „… support to direct funding of political parties has been dif? cult to travel for modern democracies. In …” „… political parties (or groups) is quite different. See below in this chapter, section D (allocation of …”

List of tables and graphs S. 15-16

„… percent of total expenses) 63Table 2-4: Costs of premises for parties in Europe (Britain and France …” „… major Canadian parties (in percent) 67Table 2-6: Costs of communication and publicity for parties in …” „… : Operating expenses of Canadian parties, non-election years 1985-2005 (in million CAD) 79Table 2-10 …”

Publicity S. 68-71

„… Registered Political Parties), October 2000, November 2004, February 2005, July 2007.In Canada, the important …” „… political cost. The Cana da Elections Act of 1974 gives the Chief Electoral Of? cer the mandate to prescribe …” „… latter, however, relates to political publicity.4. PublicityWhen looking for spending on publicity, we …”

Groups of party activists S. 54-56

„… centralisation of power and resources in modern political parties.29 Quite to the contrary, each party boasts a …” „… seem to be neatly balanced giving each tier enough resources for political activity. From 1994 to 2004 …” „… funds within the two major parties in Germany does not support the hypothesis of a general trend towards …”

Party caucuses (parliamentary groups) S. 306-308

„… political parties as well. Although each state has its own regulation, in general they are similar to those …” „… subsidies for the party press. From the 19th century on news papers owned and operated by political parties …” „… at the federal level. Most of the public money given to parties is provided at the sub-national level …”

New technology S. 172-177

„… an explo sion in the costs of political campaigns.”75 Modern campaign technology is helping parties …” „… 1722. New technologyAmong political scientists, it is generally accepted that scienti? c and …” „… intensive than modern campaigning. Parties increasingly substitute those techniques, and “good campaign …”

Association quotas S. 230-233

„… the Canadian parties became a political reality due to an innovative combination of public regulation …” „… political contributions is rising slowly.228A comparison of the tax bene? ts offered by various democracies …” „… public in centives. Quite a different approach to public impact on political donations is the idea to …”

Party penumbra (ancillary bodies and affiliated organisations) S. 56-58

„… cost centres of political activity may be called af? liated, ancil lary, auxiliary, parallel and …” „… (occasionally stu dents, too) are built into the formal structure of many parties. This pattern dominates in …” „… expenses.46In a much looser fashion, the two major parties in Germany (CDU, SPD) have copied this model of …”

Public funding in (comparative) perspective: parties and other organisations S. 332-334

„… ) perspective: parties and other organisations The amounts of public subsidies to political parties are very …” „… scholars start to criticise the amounts of public funds given to political parties they will have to …” „… also occurred to political parties. Not only the organisation gets used to depend on public funding …”

Candidates (for parliament or the presidency) S. 303-304

„… Austria), parties are the relevant political competi tors and thus the major recipients of public …” „… participants of political competition the speci? c recipient varies. Depending on the major institutions of the …” „… political system and speci? c electoral rules this may be a pre-eminent candidate, e.g. for the presidency …”

Energising fundraisers (matching funds) S. 224-225

„… generate suf? cient income for modern political parties.” The major reason for this is that “parties cannot …” „… 224C) Public incentives (for small political contributions)Whenever carefully designed legislation …” „… was passed on the subject of political ? nance, it aimed to redress the imbalance between the …”

Policy development (research and training) S. 84-86

„… for public subsidies. Dutch parties have traditionally made transfer payments to af? liated …” „… heavily subsidised “party academies” serve as training systems for the parties represented in the national …” „… parliament.161 Over decades the “political foundations” in Germany have performed similar functions. Nowadays …”

Interaction of causal factors S. 149-154

„… political competition.D) Interaction of causal factorsAfter testing a variety of factors, which in theory …” „… may in? uence the level of political spend ing, we are now in a position to draw preliminary …” „… countries (as the speci? c element, which either increases or decreases political spending does not occur in …”

List of abbreviations S. 17-18

„… shekelIPS Index of Political Spending (see chapter III)JPY Japanese yenKF Konservative Folkeparti …” „… Political Action Committee (USA)P.C. Progressive Conservatives (Canada), now: CPCPCE Partido Communista de …” „… Espana (Spain)PCF Parti Communiste Français (France)PCI Partido Comunista Italiano (Italy)PDS Partei des …”

Adjustment for election cycle, country size and economic performance S. 109-115

„… million.National and local electioneering by these parties cost IEP 4.3 million for the 1987 parlia mentary …” „… ) Adjustment for election cycle, country size and economic performanceAs expenses by parties and candidates …” „… the level of political expenses must establish an annual average (step 2). This requires data for an …”

Stages of political and economic development S. 121-124

„… local political clubs and charities.” Development of cohesive parties, which began in the late …” „… also reemphasises the need to follow the development of political expenses over time. Can we discover a …” „… democracies? Before we move to the dynamic aspects of political ? nance and a study of time series data,1 we …”

State intervention in the economy S. 146-149

„… party spending; some of them will increase, while others will decrease the outlay of parties for …” „… political competition. Another factor that has been mentioned in scholarly analysis is the interaction …” „… for political purposes … where the extent of govern ment spending and economic regulation is great.”86 …”

Size of the electorate (economies of scale) S. 124-128

„… Germany (both with an interrupted tra dition) do not have extremely high levels of political spending. The …” „… democratisation) reduces the level of political spending. However, various factors can pull the level of party …” „… , parties appealing to a small electorate of 2 million voters can be expected to need (relatively) more …”

General grants S. 302-303

„… countries legislators have abstained from de? ning the purpose because they feel that the items of political …” „… a demarcation line between on-going activities and campaigns cannot be drawn, and Ger man parties …” „… wealth of experience in roughly ? ve decades. Although parties may tailor subsidy pro grammes to suit …”

External influences (electorate and inflation) S. 155-162

„… political purposes has multiplied by a factor of 14.2 Similar trends were documented for Fran ce, Australia …” „… all over Western Europe during the post-war period.”3 In short, political analysts observe a dramatic …” „… increase of political expenditures everywhere. It is not surprising that the U.S. experience seriously in …”

Spending/ expenses S. 393

„… complexity by describing types. Four types represent the universe of political parties operating in …” „… 393CHAPTER ELEVENMoney as a Political Resource (Conclusion)In concluding our study, we will sum up …” „… the major ? ndings and consider ways to improve political analysis. Because the variety of political …”

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